Zooanthropogenic potential of SARS-CoV-2 virus: Implications for vaccine-mediated immunity

The human pandemic caused by Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that started in December, 2019 is still continuing in various parts of the world. The SARS-CoV-2 has evolved through sporadic mutations and recombination events and the emergence of alternate variants following adaptations in humans and human-to-animal transmission (zooanthraponosis) has raised concerns over the efficacy of vaccines against new variants. The animal reservoir of SARS-CoV-2 is unknown despite reports of SARS-CoV- 2-related viruses in bats and pangolins. A recent report of back-andforth transmission of SARS-CoV-2 between humans and minks on mink farms in the Netherlands has sparked widespread interest in zooanthroponotic transmission of SARS-CoV-2 followed by reemergence to infect human populations. The risk of animal to human transmission depends on virus-host interaction in susceptible species that may be short-term or long term risks. The short term risk might be due to infection to humans during the viremic stage in susceptible animals. The long term risk might be either due to persistence of the virus at population level or latency of infection leading to risk of evolution and re-emergence of the virus. Experimental studies have identified a range of animals that are susceptible and permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection viz. cats, ferrets, hamsters, mink, non-human primates, tree shrews, raccoon dogs, fruit bats, and rabbits. The health impacts of SARS-CoV-2 infection in animals are unknown and it is likely that other susceptible species have not been discovered yet. Apart from farmed animals, stray cats and rodents have been identified as a potential opportunity for ongoing transmission in intense farming situations. Recognizing animal species that are most susceptible to infection is the first step in preventing ongoing transmission from humans. Minimizing the risk of zooanthraponosis requires multi-sectoral coordination that includes implementation of strict biosecurity measures such as controlled access to farms that house susceptible animals, bio-secure entry and exit protocols, disinfection protocols in farm, down time for animal transport vehicles and daily assessments of human handlers for exposure to SARS-CoV- 2. Hence, active surveillance in animal species that are prioritized based on risk assessment need to be initiated in coordination with health and environment sectors for early identification of emerging and re-emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 virus in animals.

SARS-CoV-2 in animals used for fur farming: GLEWS+ risk assessment (20 January 2021)

SARS-CoV-2 was first identified in humans in December 2019 and has since affected almost 68 million people causing over 1.5 million deaths worldwide. Animal-to-human and animal-to-animal transmission has been documented within farmed minks in several countries. SARS-CoV-2 has been identified in a farmed mink population in a number of countries. Some of the affected farms reported also workers SARS-CoV-2 infection and it is hypothesized that the mink farms were infected through human-mink transmission proving SARS-CoV-2 capability of reverse zoonosis. This Tripartite Risk Assessment, as a joint effort under the GLEWS+ initiative, completed with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), evaluates the risk of introduction and spread of SARS-CoV-2 within fur farming systems as well as whether farmed fur animals could play a significant role in the spread of SARS-CoV-2 to humans via spillover. Additionally, using a One Health approach, the Tripartite evaluated the risk of the escaped minks leading to the establishment of a viral reservoir in susceptible wildlife populations. This work provides guidance to Members on this newly emerging threat.

Human-animal spillover of SARS-CoV-2: Implications for public health

COVID-19 pandemic caused by the recently emerged severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is a significant public health catastrophe in a century. While the precise origin of SARS-CoV-2, and its mode of introduction into the human population, is not yet fully resolved, there is evidence that SARS-CoV-2 originated from bats. As zoonotic viruses infecting humans can spill back into susceptible animal hosts, SARS-CoV-2 has demonstrated the ability to infect many nonhuman animal host species. The list of animal species susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection continues to grow and includes domestic animals, primates, pet animals, and zoo animals. In addition, based on the ability of the spike protein to bind to the ACE-2 receptor, computational predictions have identified dozens of additional possible animal hosts for SARS-CoV-2. In addition, there are multiple reports of human infections from SARS-CoV-2 infected animals. We discovered widespread natural infection of wild white-tailed deer with SARS-CoV-2 in the USA, suggesting their role as a potential SARS-CoV-2 reservoir. Establishing an animal reservoir could facilitate the continued circulation of SARS-CoV-2 independent of circulation in humans. In addition, deer could pass on the infection to other susceptible wild animals such as rodents, foxes, and raccoons resulting in the establishment of SARS-CoV-2 enzootic transmission cycles. Such a scenario could result in virus adaptation and the emergence of novel variants that could escape the protection of current human SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. This presentation will discuss our recent findings on natural SARS-CoV-2 infection of deer and the long-term implications of human-animal-human spillover of SARS-CoV-2.

Sars-Cov-2 Novel Corona Virus: Origin and the Vaccination Survey

This paper manages the Origin of Covid (SARS-CoV-2-novel Covid) and the Vaccination view. Within excess of 10 million tainted cases and more than 3 million setbacks at the hour of composing this piece, the original Covid actuated wellbeing disease has arisen as the most serious among every one of the worldwide pandemics. The novel (COVID-19 or 2019-nCoV) was found in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China. Bats were liable for the underlying spread, which was subsequently spread to people by the raccoon canine and palm civet. The normal COVID-19 manifestations are fever, dry hack, and sleepiness. The significant manifestations are trouble breathing, chest torment, and loss of speech. The indications and indications of SARS-CoV-2 prompting COVID-19 completely match those of the occasional or, dust sensitivities and flu as migraine, touchiness of the throat, dry hack, weariness, fever, and at times loss of sensation (Tu et al., year2020). An individual tainted with the diseases of sensitivity to pollen or, flu sensitivity is additionally liable to show temperature that can be recorded with thermo-scanners prompting the individual to turn into a suspect of the sickness. Along these lines, before immunizing, a fast and exact analytic meter or, the pack is the need of great importance to identify the SARS-CoV-2 inferable from the way that the testing in view of PCR is tedious and exorbitant (Sirkeci and Yucesahin, year2020). Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications. All rights reserved.

SARS-CoV-2 and West Nile Virus Prevalence Studies in Raccoons and Raccoon Dogs from Germany.

Unlike farm animals, wild animals are not subject to continuous health surveillance. Individual projects designed to screen wildlife populations for specific pathogens are, therefore, also of great importance for human health. In this context, the possible formation of a reservoir for highly pathogenic zoonotic pathogens is a focus of research. Two of these pathogens that have received particular attention during the last years are the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), due to its fast global spread and high impact to the human health, and, since its introduction into Germany, the flavivirus West Nile virus (WNV). Especially in combination with invasive vertebrate species (e.g., raccoons (Procyon lotor) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) in Germany), risk analysis must be done to enable health authorities to assess the potential for the establishment of new wild life reservoirs for pathogens. Therefore, samples were collected from raccoons and raccoon dogs and analyzed for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 and WNV infections in these populations. Molecular biological and serological data obtained imply that no SARS-CoV-2 nor WNV reservoir has been established in these two wild life species yet. Future investigations need to keep an eye on these invasive carnivore populations, especially since the close contact of these animals to humans, mainly in urban areas, would make animal-human transmission a challenge for human health.

Chapter 2 - Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

In 2002, a severe-to-fatal respiratory disease began in China and was named severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The causative agent was soon found to be a coronavirus and was named SARS-coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Infection was traced to contact with live palm civet cats or raccoon dogs in live animal food markets (“wet markets”) and later, person-to-person. Visiting these markets or restaurants housing these animals before preparing them for customer consumption were among the risk factors for infection in addition to frequent use of taxis and comorbidities. After its initial appearance, SARS spread rapidly through parts of Asia and then to countries around the world before almost completely disappearing in 2003. It caused 8096 cases and 774 deaths. SARS-CoV is a betacoronavirus linage B. The single-stranded RNA genome of coronaviruses is the largest among RNA viruses. The size of the genome, the inaccuracy of replication in most coronaviruses, and homogenous and heterogenous genetic recombination contribute to the high frequency of mutation. The viral spike (S) protein binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 on the host cell before entry. Mutations in the S protein make a substantial contribution to viral transmission to additional host species and cell types in addition to viral virulence as the virus adapted to its new hosts. Interestingly, SARS-CoV isolates from the initial stages of the 2002–2003 epidemic were more virulent than those isolated later and are associated with a 29-nucleotide deletion in the S protein gene. Several insectivorous Chinese bats appear to serve as reservoir hosts for the ancestorial coronavirus. New forms of protection against infection were implemented in China and some other countries and include wearing face masks, thermal screening, and avoiding travel in taxis and public transportation. Their effectiveness in decreasing transmission and the rapid end of the epidemic is unknown.

Virome characterization of game animals in China reveals a spectrum of emerging pathogens

Wild animals may be closely related to the outbreak of infectious diseases in recent years. For example, it has been reported that there are closely related SARS-CoV and new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in civet cats, raccoon dogs and pangolins. Therefore, it is of great significance to identify existing or potential pathogens in wild animals that may be in close contact with humans, in order to trace the origin of a specific epidemic and to carry out risk assessment of the most likely source of future epidemics.

Coronaviruses in wild animals sampled in and around Wuhan at the beginning of COVID-19 emergence.

Over the last several decades, no emerging virus has had a profound impact on the world as the SARS-CoV-2 that emerged at the end of 2019 has done. To know where severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) originated from and how it jumped into human population, we immediately started a surveillance investigation in wild mammals in and around Wuhan when we determined the agent. Herein, coronaviruses were screened in the lung, liver, and intestinal tissue samples from fifteen raccoon dogs, seven Siberian weasels, three hog badgers, and three Reeves's muntjacs collected in Wuhan and 334 bats collected around Wuhan. Consequently, eight alphacoronaviruses were identified in raccoon dogs, while nine betacoronaviruses were found in bats. Notably, the newly discovered alphacoronaviruses shared a high whole-genome sequence similarity (97.9 per cent) with the canine coronavirus (CCoV) strain 2020/7 sampled from domestic dog in the UK. Some betacoronaviruses identified here were closely related to previously known bat SARS-CoV-related viruses sampled from Hubei province and its neighbors, while the remaining betacoronaviruses exhibited a close evolutionary relationship with SARS-CoV-related bat viruses in the RdRp gene tree and clustered together with SARS-CoV-2-related bat coronaviruses in the M, N and S gene trees, but with relatively low similarity. Additionally, these newly discovered betacoronaviruses seem unlikely to bind angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 because of the deletions in the two key regions of their receptor-binding motifs. Finally, we did not find SARS-CoV-2 or its progenitor virus in these animal samples. Due to the high circulation of CCoVs in raccoon dogs in Wuhan, more scientific efforts are warranted to better understand their diversity and evolution in China and the possibility of a potential human agent.

Outbreak of a novel disease caused by Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides).

This study reports outbreak of a new disease caused by Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (S. pseudintermedius) in raccoon dogs. The disease occurred in a breeding farm of raccoon dogs in Guan County of Shandong Province in China in August of 2019. 47% (425/896) of the raccoon dogs showed some abnormal symptoms; 17.6% (75/425) of which had severe skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), dyspnoea and severe pathological lesions in lungs, livers, etc; and 4.2% (18/425) of which died within 4 weeks. The pathogen of the disease was identified as S. pseudintermedius by mass spectrometer detection, animal pathogenicity tests, microscopic examination and biochemical reaction tests. Its nucleotide homology of 16S rRNA gene was 100% with that of other published strains, and its genotype was between the American and Brazilian strains from other animals. The isolated S. pseudintermedius strain from the diseased raccoon dogs could cause ulceration and suppuration in the skins and severe pathological lesions not only in raccoon dogs, but also in mice; and it is confirmed as a methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP) strain by the amplification of mecA gene; and 12 sensitive drugs were screened by drug sensitivity tests. Full attention should be paid to the great economic loss and the potential zoonotic risk caused by the S. pseudintermedius in raccoon dogs, and this study can provide a reference for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of this new disease.

Peridomestic Mammal Susceptibility to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection.

Wild animals have been implicated as the origin of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), but it is largely unknown how the virus affects most wildlife species and if wildlife could ultimately serve as a reservoir for maintaining the virus outside the human population. We show that several common peridomestic species, including deer mice, bushy-tailed woodrats, and striped skunks, are susceptible to infection and can shed the virus in respiratory secretions. In contrast, we demonstrate that cottontail rabbits, fox squirrels, Wyoming ground squirrels, black-tailed prairie dogs, house mice, and racoons are not susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Our results expand the knowledge base of susceptible species and provide evidence that human-wildlife interactions could result in continued transmission of SARS-CoV-2.

Multi-species ELISA for the detection of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in animals.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a pandemic with millions of infected humans and hundreds of thousands of fatalities. As the novel disease - referred to as COVID-19 - unfolded, occasional anthropozoonotic infections of animals by owners or caretakers were reported in dogs, felid species and farmed mink. Further species were shown to be susceptible under experimental conditions. The extent of natural infections of animals, however, is still largely unknown. Serological methods will be useful tools for tracing SARS-CoV-2 infections in animals once test systems are evaluated for use in different species. Here, we developed an indirect multi-species ELISA based on the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2. The newly established ELISA was evaluated using 59 sera of infected or vaccinated animals, including ferrets, raccoon dogs, hamsters, rabbits, chickens, cattle and a cat, and a total of 220 antibody-negative sera of the same animal species. Overall, a diagnostic specificity of 100.0% and sensitivity of 98.31% were achieved, and the functionality with every species included in this study could be demonstrated. Hence, a versatile and reliable ELISA protocol was established that enables high-throughput antibody detection in a broad range of animal species, which may be used for outbreak investigations, to assess the seroprevalence in susceptible species or to screen for reservoir or intermediate hosts.

Susceptibility of Raccoon Dogs for Experimental SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

Raccoon dogs might have been intermediate hosts for severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus in 2002-2004. We demonstrated susceptibility of raccoon dogs to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection and transmission to in-contact animals. Infected animals had no signs of illness. Virus replication and tissue lesions occurred in the nasal conchae.